Aviation Titanium Alloy Market Outlook

The aviation titanium alloy market is anticipated to flourish at an average CAGR of 6.9% between 2023 and 2033. The market is expected to hold a market share of US$ 8.01 billion by 2033 while the market is likely to reach a value of US$ 4.11 billion in 2023.

The experimentation with titanium along with the multiple benefits delivered by the addition of titanium in any heavy-weight structure is flourishing the market growth. Furthermore, it also carries properties such as resistance to corrosion, higher strength, non-toxic to humans, minimal thermal expansion, high melting point, and extraordinary fabrication possibilities. The market makes its space due to the multiple uses of titanium in the aviation sector. From manufacturing to the final touches, titanium is used to build different parts of the airplane. These parts involve airframes, engines, and some landing gear. Though, different kind of material is used in manufacturing these parts such as commercially pure titanium, and Ti-6AI-4V alloy.

These different grades of titanium make it up to the top and become an easy replacement for steel. Titanium is majorly used in places where heavy weight creates strain and other stuff. Alongside this, the aviation industry is trying its best to cut unnecessary cost, and hence titanium with longer shelf life, reducing the airframe maintenance cost effectively along. The metal research and development over its implementation, application, another properties are also helping the market players produce different grades of titanium.

The lighter the weight, the more fuel can be saved and hence modern-day aircraft such as Boeing 787 Dreamliner, Airbus A350 are using titanium during manufacturing. The benefits such as advanced technological integration, improved fuel efficiency, and enhanced passenger comfort are propelling the market growth.

Latest Trends in the Market:

  • Titanium’s stiffness-to-weight ratio makes it a better substitute for steel. The ratio provides longer shelf life, strength, and effective performance to its long range of verticals. Furthermore, the aviation giants include titanium to add value to th passenger’s comfort and safety.
  • The recyclable qualities of titanium make it cost-effective for aviation companies as it can save money over the purchase of new material. Though, the quality monitoring control of any aviation space helps in choosing the best material.
  • The use of titanium in the aviation sector saves capital as titanium doesn't get rust due to its antioxidant properties. The material doesn't let rust stick to it and hence carries a longer shelf life.
Attribute Details
Aviation Titanium Alloy Market CAGR (2023 to 2033) 6.9%
Aviation Titanium Alloy Market Size (2023) US$ 4.11 billion
Aviation Titanium Alloy Market Size (2033) US$ 8.01 billion

Don't pay for what you don't need

Customize your report by selecting specific countries or regions and save 30%!

2018 to 2022 Aviation Titanium Alloy Demand Outlook Compared to 2023 to 2033 Forecast

From 2018 to 2022, the aviation titanium alloy market thrived at a lower CAGR of 4.1%, reaching a market size of US$ 3.4 billion in 2023. Though, the market thrives at a CAGR of 6.9% between 2023 and 2033. The improved growth rate is attributed to extending research and development, restoring air travel, resuming tourist activities around the world, and flourishing manufacturing space.

From 2018 to 2022, the aviation titanium alloy industry witnessed lower growth. The limited growth rate was attributed to the limited air travel and slow per capita income growth along with government-based research. The restoration of the aviation titanium alloy market is caused by efficient fights, increased per capita income, and an increased number of national flights due to new airports and higher connectivity. More titanium-producing facilities and proliferating applications are likely to garner market growth during the forecast period. It now thrives at an improved CAGR of 4.5% and is expected to hold a value of US$ 8.01 billion by 2033. Better production and research facilities are expected to contribute to this growth path.

Major Factors Fuelling the Market Growth

FMI’s extended research unravels the major growth drivers of the market. The aviation industry is constantly growing along with technological advancements. If a shift from analog to digital automation and flight control system has occurred, then a change in materials used becomes necessary. Furthermore, aviation companies looking for lighter material with higher strength and melting point makes it useful for different applications across the region. Though, the increased travel activities in emerging nations along with the other technological advancements are using titanium in their aviation production and activity.

The higher usage of titanium in space is also flourishing the market growth. Other than this, the improved import-export scenarios, market development, and regional geopolitics technological advancements are some other elements that help the aviation titanium alloy market. As aviation owners walk beside time and any additional new technological advancements is welcomed and supported by the industry leaders.

Nikhil Kaitwade
Nikhil Kaitwade

Principal Consultant

Talk to Analyst

Find your sweet spots for generating winning opportunities in this market.

Country-wise Insights

Country Revenue Share % (2023)
United States 32.1%
Germany 5.6%
Japan 6.3%
Australia 1.0%
Country CAGR % (2023 to 2033)
China 7.7%
India 8.3%
United Kingdom 4.8%

Restore Defense Research, Higher Military Budget, and Increased Titanium Imports are flourishing the Regional Growth

The North American market held a strong market share in 2022 while the United States also held a market share of 32.1% in the global market. This major growth is attributed to the adoption of titanium in the proliferated production units, the higher production of titanium of different grades restored airline travel and increased per capita income. Other than this, the United States government is also advancing its military aircraft such as Raptor, F-18s, etc. with 100% titanium usage. While Russia exports 30-35% of the world’s titanium, the projection for the adoption of titanium in the United States’ defense aircraft looks challenging.

Blooming Aviation Industry, Enhanced Tourism Market, and Presence of Major Airlines are Garnering the Regional Growth

The European market held a significant market share in 2022. The other regions like Germany also held a share of 5.6%% in the global market. The expanding automotive and military-based systems along with the rapidly increasing manufacturing units are propelling market growth in the region. While the integration of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and material science has also contributed enough to the market’s upward trajectory.

Increased Per Capita Income, New Aviation Companies Building their Base, and Aviation-based Research have propelled the Regional Growth

India and China are the future superpowers and are expected to dominate most market spaces. India thrives at a CAGR of 8.3% while China moves along at a CAGR of 7.7% during the forecast period. While India is setting up connectivity and transportation solutions by building new airport spaces, China holds a major manufacturing space that caters to perfect production units with experimentation and innovation being the key of it.

Category-Wise Landscape

Category By Microstructure
Leading Segment Alpha-Beta Alloy
Market Hold % (2022) 41.1%
Category By Application
Leading Segment Civilian Aerospace
Market Hold % (2022) 62.0%

The market is segmented into authentication, technology, offering, type, and application. These segments have different sub-segments further. FMI analyses these segments and explains which segment is leading and the reasons behind

Enhanced Heat Treatability, Weldability, and Corrosion Resistance make the Alpha-Beta Alloy Type the Leading Segment

Based on microstructure, the alpha-beta alloy segment leads the market as it held a market share of 41.1% in 2022. The growth is attributed to the long range of industrial and aviation-based benefits. The heat treatability is due to the higher melting point that adds strength. Other than this, the weldable structure makes it easier to make tools out of this microstructure type.

Higher Consumption, Restored Airline Density, and Increased Per Capita Income are some of the Factors Flourishing the Segmental Growth

Based on application, the civilian aerospace segment is expected to lead the market as it held a market share of 62.0% in 2022. The growth is attributed to higher consumption. The higher consumption is attributed to the resumed tourist activity post-pandemic, increasing awareness around passenger’s safety and comfort, and increased national flights.

Get the data you need at a Fraction of the cost

Personalize your report by choosing insights you need
and save 40%!

Competition Scenario

The Aviation Titanium Alloy industry is fragmented and competitive and includes various players such as Precision Castparts Corporation, Kobelco Group, Bralco Metals, and Acnis International. Companies focus on introducing different grades and proportion-type of titanium alloy for the aviation industry. These companies mainly focus on mergers, collaboration, and other campaigns to enhance the supply chain and deployment capacity.

Market Developments

  • Paris Saint-Denis Aero has introduced its titanium alloy rod named TA6V. The titanium used in this is of ti-6AI-4V and it comes in a shape of a rod.
  • Gould Alloys has launched its titanium sheet for aerospace applications. The sheet is a 495 mm (19.488 in) diameter.

Key Players

  • VSMPO-AVISMA Corporation
  • RTI International Metals
  • Paris Saint-Denis Aero
  • Metalweb
  • Gould Alloys
  • Precision Castparts Corporation
  • Kobelco Group
  • Bralco Metals
  • Acnis International.

Key Segments Covered

By Type:

  • Commercially Pure Titanium
  • Titanium Alloys

By Application:

  • Structural Airframes
  • Engines
  • Civillian Aerospace
  • Others

By Microstructure:

  • Alpha & Near-Alpha Titanium Alloy
  • Alpha + Beta Titanium Alloy
  • Beta & Near-Beta Titanium Alloy

Key Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • United States
    • Canada
  • Latin America
    • Brazil
    • Mexico
    • Rest of Latin America
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • United Kingdom
    • France
    • Spain
    • Russia
    • Rest of Europe
  • Japan
  • Asia Pacific Excluding Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Malaysia
    • Singapore
    • Australia
    • Rest of Asia Pacific Excluding Japan (APEJ)
  • Middle East and Africa
    • GCC Countries
    • Israel
    • South Africa
    • Middle East and Africa (MEA)

Frequently Asked Questions

What Drives Sales of the Market?

Higher-end research and development drive sales.

What is the Key Trend of the Market?

The usage of 2.2 titanium for the fan and compressor is the key trend.

What is the Growth Forecast for the Market?

The market is forecast to register a CAGR of 6.9% through 2033.

What is the market Forecast in 2023?

The market generated a revenue of US$ 4.11 billion in 2023.

What is the Key Opportunity in the Market?

The high usage of titanium in space flourishes the market growth.

Table of Content

1. Executive Summary

    1.1. Global Market Outlook

    1.2. Demand-side Trends

    1.3. Supply-side Trends

    1.4. Technology Roadmap Analysis

    1.5. Analysis and Recommendations

2. Market Overview

    2.1. Market Coverage / Taxonomy

    2.2. Market Definition / Scope / Limitations

3. Market Background

    3.1. Market Dynamics

        3.1.1. Drivers

        3.1.2. Restraints

        3.1.3. Opportunity

        3.1.4. Trends

    3.2. Scenario Forecast

        3.2.1. Demand in Optimistic Scenario

        3.2.2. Demand in Likely Scenario

        3.2.3. Demand in Conservative Scenario

    3.3. Opportunity Map Analysis

    3.4. Product Life Cycle Analysis

    3.5. Supply Chain Analysis

        3.5.1. Supply Side Participants and their Roles

            3.5.1.1. Producers

            3.5.1.2. Mid-Level Participants (Traders/ Agents/ Brokers)

            3.5.1.3. Wholesalers and Distributors

        3.5.2. Value Added and Value Created at Node in the Supply Chain

        3.5.3. List of Raw Material Suppliers

        3.5.4. List of Existing and Potential Buyer’s

    3.6. Investment Feasibility Matrix

    3.7. Value Chain Analysis

        3.7.1. Profit Margin Analysis

        3.7.2. Wholesalers and Distributors

        3.7.3. Retailers

    3.8. PESTLE and Porter’s Analysis

    3.9. Regulatory Landscape

        3.9.1. By Key Regions

        3.9.2. By Key Countries

    3.10. Regional Parent Market Outlook

    3.11. Production and Consumption Statistics

    3.12. Import and Export Statistics

4. Global Market Analysis 2018 to 2022 and Forecast, 2023 to 2033

    4.1. Historical Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Analysis, 2018 to 2022

    4.2. Current and Future Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Projections, 2023 to 2033

        4.2.1. Y-o-Y Growth Trend Analysis

        4.2.2. Absolute $ Opportunity Analysis

5. Global Market Analysis 2018 to 2022 and Forecast 2023 to 2033, By Type

    5.1. Introduction / Key Findings

    5.2. Historical Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Analysis By Type, 2018 to 2022

    5.3. Current and Future Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Analysis and Forecast By Type, 2023 to 2033

        5.3.1. Commercially Pure Titanium

        5.3.2. Titanium Alloys

    5.4. Y-o-Y Growth Trend Analysis By Type, 2018 to 2022

    5.5. Absolute $ Opportunity Analysis By Type, 2023 to 2033

6. Global Market Analysis 2018 to 2022 and Forecast 2023 to 2033, By Application

    6.1. Introduction / Key Findings

    6.2. Historical Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Analysis By Application, 2018 to 2022

    6.3. Current and Future Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Analysis and Forecast By Application, 2023 to 2033

        6.3.1. Structural Airframes

        6.3.2. Engines

        6.3.3. Others

    6.4. Y-o-Y Growth Trend Analysis By Application, 2018 to 2022

    6.5. Absolute $ Opportunity Analysis By Application, 2023 to 2033

7. Global Market Analysis 2018 to 2022 and Forecast 2023 to 2033, By Region

    7.1. Introduction

    7.2. Historical Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Analysis By Region, 2018 to 2022

    7.3. Current Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Analysis and Forecast By Region, 2023 to 2033

        7.3.1. North America

        7.3.2. Latin America

        7.3.3. Europe

        7.3.4. Asia Pacific

        7.3.5. MEA

    7.4. Market Attractiveness Analysis By Region

8. North America Market Analysis 2018 to 2022 and Forecast 2023 to 2033, By Country

    8.1. Historical Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Trend Analysis By Market Taxonomy, 2018 to 2022

    8.2. Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Forecast By Market Taxonomy, 2023 to 2033

        8.2.1. By Country

            8.2.1.1. The USA

            8.2.1.2. Canada

        8.2.2. By Type

        8.2.3. By Application

    8.3. Market Attractiveness Analysis

        8.3.1. By Country

        8.3.2. By Type

        8.3.3. By Application

    8.4. Key Takeaways

9. Latin America Market Analysis 2018 to 2022 and Forecast 2023 to 2033, By Country

    9.1. Historical Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Trend Analysis By Market Taxonomy, 2018 to 2022

    9.2. Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Forecast By Market Taxonomy, 2023 to 2033

        9.2.1. By Country

            9.2.1.1. Brazil

            9.2.1.2. Mexico

            9.2.1.3. Rest of Latin America

        9.2.2. By Type

        9.2.3. By Application

    9.3. Market Attractiveness Analysis

        9.3.1. By Country

        9.3.2. By Type

        9.3.3. By Application

    9.4. Key Takeaways

10. Europe Market Analysis 2018 to 2022 and Forecast 2023 to 2033, By Country

    10.1. Historical Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Trend Analysis By Market Taxonomy, 2018 to 2022

    10.2. Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Forecast By Market Taxonomy, 2023 to 2033

        10.2.1. By Country

            10.2.1.1. Germany

            10.2.1.2. United Kingdom

            10.2.1.3. France

            10.2.1.4. Spain

            10.2.1.5. Italy

            10.2.1.6. Rest of Europe

        10.2.2. By Type

        10.2.3. By Application

    10.3. Market Attractiveness Analysis

        10.3.1. By Country

        10.3.2. By Type

        10.3.3. By Application

    10.4. Key Takeaways

11. Asia Pacific Market Analysis 2018 to 2022 and Forecast 2023 to 2033, By Country

    11.1. Historical Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Trend Analysis By Market Taxonomy, 2018 to 2022

    11.2. Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Forecast By Market Taxonomy, 2023 to 2033

        11.2.1. By Country

            11.2.1.1. China

            11.2.1.2. Japan

            11.2.1.3. South Korea

            11.2.1.4. Singapore

            11.2.1.5. Thailand

            11.2.1.6. Indonesia

            11.2.1.7. Australia

            11.2.1.8. New Zealand

            11.2.1.9. Rest of Asia Pacific

        11.2.2. By Type

        11.2.3. By Application

    11.3. Market Attractiveness Analysis

        11.3.1. By Country

        11.3.2. By Type

        11.3.3. By Application

    11.4. Key Takeaways

12. MEA Market Analysis 2018 to 2022 and Forecast 2023 to 2033, By Country

    12.1. Historical Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Trend Analysis By Market Taxonomy, 2018 to 2022

    12.2. Market Size Value (US$ Million) & Volume (MT) Forecast By Market Taxonomy, 2023 to 2033

        12.2.1. By Country

            12.2.1.1. GCC Countries

            12.2.1.2. South Africa

            12.2.1.3. Israel

            12.2.1.4. Rest of MEA

        12.2.2. By Type

        12.2.3. By Application

    12.3. Market Attractiveness Analysis

        12.3.1. By Country

        12.3.2. By Type

        12.3.3. By Application

    12.4. Key Takeaways

13. Key Countries Market Analysis

    13.1. USA

        13.1.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.1.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.1.2.1. By Type

            13.1.2.2. By Application

    13.2. Canada

        13.2.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.2.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.2.2.1. By Type

            13.2.2.2. By Application

    13.3. Brazil

        13.3.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.3.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.3.2.1. By Type

            13.3.2.2. By Application

    13.4. Mexico

        13.4.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.4.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.4.2.1. By Type

            13.4.2.2. By Application

    13.5. Germany

        13.5.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.5.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.5.2.1. By Type

            13.5.2.2. By Application

    13.6. United Kingdom

        13.6.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.6.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.6.2.1. By Type

            13.6.2.2. By Application

    13.7. France

        13.7.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.7.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.7.2.1. By Type

            13.7.2.2. By Application

    13.8. Spain

        13.8.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.8.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.8.2.1. By Type

            13.8.2.2. By Application

    13.9. Italy

        13.9.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.9.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.9.2.1. By Type

            13.9.2.2. By Application

    13.10. China

        13.10.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.10.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.10.2.1. By Type

            13.10.2.2. By Application

    13.11. Japan

        13.11.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.11.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.11.2.1. By Type

            13.11.2.2. By Application

    13.12. South Korea

        13.12.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.12.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.12.2.1. By Type

            13.12.2.2. By Application

    13.13. Singapore

        13.13.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.13.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.13.2.1. By Type

            13.13.2.2. By Application

    13.14. Thailand

        13.14.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.14.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.14.2.1. By Type

            13.14.2.2. By Application

    13.15. Indonesia

        13.15.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.15.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.15.2.1. By Type

            13.15.2.2. By Application

    13.16. Australia

        13.16.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.16.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.16.2.1. By Type

            13.16.2.2. By Application

    13.17. New Zealand

        13.17.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.17.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.17.2.1. By Type

            13.17.2.2. By Application

    13.18. GCC Countries

        13.18.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.18.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.18.2.1. By Type

            13.18.2.2. By Application

    13.19. South Africa

        13.19.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.19.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.19.2.1. By Type

            13.19.2.2. By Application

    13.20. Israel

        13.20.1. Pricing Analysis

        13.20.2. Market Share Analysis, 2022

            13.20.2.1. By Type

            13.20.2.2. By Application

14. Market Structure Analysis

    14.1. Competition Dashboard

    14.2. Competition Benchmarking

    14.3. Market Share Analysis of Top Players

        14.3.1. By Regional

        14.3.2. By Type

        14.3.3. By Application

15. Competition Analysis

    15.1. Competition Deep Dive

        15.1.1. VSMPO-AVISMA Corporation

            15.1.1.1. Overview

            15.1.1.2. Product Portfolio

            15.1.1.3. Profitability by Market Segments

            15.1.1.4. Sales Footprint

            15.1.1.5. Strategy Overview

                15.1.1.5.1. Marketing Strategy

                15.1.1.5.2. Product Strategy

                15.1.1.5.3. Channel Strategy

        15.1.2. RTI International Metals

            15.1.2.1. Overview

            15.1.2.2. Product Portfolio

            15.1.2.3. Profitability by Market Segments

            15.1.2.4. Sales Footprint

            15.1.2.5. Strategy Overview

                15.1.2.5.1. Marketing Strategy

                15.1.2.5.2. Product Strategy

                15.1.2.5.3. Channel Strategy

        15.1.3. Paris Saint-Denis Aero

            15.1.3.1. Overview

            15.1.3.2. Product Portfolio

            15.1.3.3. Profitability by Market Segments

            15.1.3.4. Sales Footprint

            15.1.3.5. Strategy Overview

                15.1.3.5.1. Marketing Strategy

                15.1.3.5.2. Product Strategy

                15.1.3.5.3. Channel Strategy

        15.1.4. Metalweb

            15.1.4.1. Overview

            15.1.4.2. Product Portfolio

            15.1.4.3. Profitability by Market Segments

            15.1.4.4. Sales Footprint

            15.1.4.5. Strategy Overview

                15.1.4.5.1. Marketing Strategy

                15.1.4.5.2. Product Strategy

                15.1.4.5.3. Channel Strategy

        15.1.5. Gould Alloys

            15.1.5.1. Overview

            15.1.5.2. Product Portfolio

            15.1.5.3. Profitability by Market Segments

            15.1.5.4. Sales Footprint

            15.1.5.5. Strategy Overview

                15.1.5.5.1. Marketing Strategy

                15.1.5.5.2. Product Strategy

                15.1.5.5.3. Channel Strategy

        15.1.6. Precision Castparts Corporation

            15.1.6.1. Overview

            15.1.6.2. Product Portfolio

            15.1.6.3. Profitability by Market Segments

            15.1.6.4. Sales Footprint

            15.1.6.5. Strategy Overview

                15.1.6.5.1. Marketing Strategy

                15.1.6.5.2. Product Strategy

                15.1.6.5.3. Channel Strategy

        15.1.7. Kobelco Group

            15.1.7.1. Overview

            15.1.7.2. Product Portfolio

            15.1.7.3. Profitability by Market Segments

            15.1.7.4. Sales Footprint

            15.1.7.5. Strategy Overview

                15.1.7.5.1. Marketing Strategy

                15.1.7.5.2. Product Strategy

                15.1.7.5.3. Channel Strategy

        15.1.8. Bralco Metals

            15.1.8.1. Overview

            15.1.8.2. Product Portfolio

            15.1.8.3. Profitability by Market Segments

            15.1.8.4. Sales Footprint

            15.1.8.5. Strategy Overview

                15.1.8.5.1. Marketing Strategy

                15.1.8.5.2. Product Strategy

                15.1.8.5.3. Channel Strategy

        15.1.9. Acnis International.

            15.1.9.1. Overview

            15.1.9.2. Product Portfolio

            15.1.9.3. Profitability by Market Segments

            15.1.9.4. Sales Footprint

            15.1.9.5. Strategy Overview

                15.1.9.5.1. Marketing Strategy

                15.1.9.5.2. Product Strategy

                15.1.9.5.3. Channel Strategy

        15.1.10. Allegheny Technologies Incorporated

            15.1.10.1. Overview

            15.1.10.2. Product Portfolio

            15.1.10.3. Profitability by Market Segments

            15.1.10.4. Sales Footprint

            15.1.10.5. Strategy Overview

                15.1.10.5.1. Marketing Strategy

                15.1.10.5.2. Product Strategy

                15.1.10.5.3. Channel Strategy

16. Assumptions & Acronyms Used

17. Research Methodology

Explore Chemicals & Materials Insights

View Reports
Future Market Insights

Aviation Titanium Alloy Market

Schedule a Call